On Rhetoric

As those of you who have followed my blog from the beginning know, one of my favorite topics to talk about is education...especially the disciplines of language (i.e. spelling, literature, grammar & composition).  It has been far too long since I have written about writing, which is the next best thing to actually teaching it.  So I guess you could say this post is for me.

I have an uncompromising commitment to the notion that the best way to teach a child to write is through exposure to and imitation of The Masters.  Often, students are immensely frustrated with the writing process because, from an early age, we ask them to complete tasks for which they are not adequately equipped.  Namely, we require them to bring together all 5 main components of mature composition:

Invention - coming up with ideas and material

Arrangement - organizing the ideas and material into a coherent whole

Style - stating their ideas clearly and artfully

Memory - drawing from past learning in order to illustrate and defend their ideas

Delivery - engaging and persuading an audience (through written or verbal delivery)

A better method is to only expect them to execute 1 or 2 of these at a time while they are young.  Here is an example of one way to do that:

Provide the students with material.  When you give them a classic story to rewrite or an outline from which to write (narrative vs. expository), the aspects of Invention and Arrangement (which are usually the most difficult part of the process) are taken care of, freeing them up to focus on improving their Style and Delivery.  Below is an example of the quality of work a 6th grader can produce if he is not expected to invent and arrange an original story (plot, setting and characters), while simultaneously using  a variety of sentence structures, incorporating strong word choices, and engaging the intellect and imagination of his audience. 

In the following case, I presented the students with Mary Howitt's The Spider and the Fly (about which I blogged earlier today).  Is this subject matter too juvenile for 6th graders, you might wonder?  Absolutely not.  The classic fables, fairy tales, time-enduring morality tales, and Bible narratives, provide perfect material from which to work.  I required the students to retell the story in prose, paying special attention to the Style of their writing.  Here's what one young man came up with: (the artwork is his too!)

In an old doll house lived a cunning spider.  He was feared as the most deceitful bug alive.  And yet, many bugs, thinking themselves too wise for the infamous arachnid's flattery, wandered toward his dismal corner of the attic. 

This time, it was a fly.  A rather ugly fly, the spider decided.  He soon devised his scheme.  "I'll compliment her beauty, not that there's much to compliment.  I'll show her her 'delicate and beautiful' face in my mirror.  That usually works.  (Except on that crazy cockroach who thought he was a moth.  He screamed and ran away as soon as he saw himself.  He would have been tasty too.)" 

Soon, the fly was at the spider's door.  "Come in," a foreboding voice dared.  "Join  me for supper."  "MY supper," he added under his breath.  She cautiously stepped inside.  The fly, seeing the potential danger, fearing the spider's cunning, and knowing it was past her bedtime, boldly declared, "Um... I'm...uh... not...hungry."

"Nonsense," echoed the spider's dim voice.   "You'll just die for what's on the menu today."

"I hope not," the fly mumbled.  "It isn't 'Fried Fly' is it?"

"What!"  the offended spider declared.  "That would be like eating a juicy, mouthwatering,... I mean... disgusting butterfly!"

Maybe it was the spider's sardonic attitude, or maybe it was the fly's general distrust of anyone who knew what a butterfly tasted like.  Either way, the fly came out of the house with the speed you would expect from something really fast. [not this student's most luminous moment, I admit.  Perhaps coming up with "sardonic attitude" sapped his creative energy!] 

The spider called to her, "O, Pretty Fly, come back!  I was just beginning to get to know you.  Your eyes, your hair, even your multiple arms, amaze me.  Never before have I seen such grace."

The fly foolishly decided to come back.  Carefully she approached the door.  This time, the spider did not flatter her.  He pounced.  The fly screamed.  She died.  Soon she was just another head on his mantel. 

MORAL: Don't listen to flatterers.  Especially eight-legged ones.

Now that's not too bad for an 11-year-old.  Because he was handed a clever story from a wiser, more experienced source, he gains on every side.  He delights in a well-told story, he intuitively absorbs the elements of a finely-tuned narrative, he gains wisdom, and he discovers that he can add his own resources (humor, word bank, perspective) to creatively retell it.  And all of this was accomplished with little to no frustration on the part of the student OR the teacher.  And when it comes to writing...that is no small feat! 

The Wrong Side of the Blanket

The following is an excerpt from the opening pages of my mother's book, which I am editing for her. It tells the story of her life growing up from the perspective (or "voices") of the 3 main adults (her biological mother, Bertie; her father, Vonnie; and Vonnie's wife, Vergie, who raised her). This is a work in progress, but Mom's desire ultimately is to show, through her story, the faithfulness of God in spite of grave human failure and sin. The working title of the book is "Voices From the Wrong Side of the Blanket: A Tale of Adultery, Illegitimacy and the Immeasurable Grace of God." The phrase "born on the wrong side of blanket" is an old term that referred to an illegitimate birth.

Bertie pulled the quilt around her shoulders as she sat alone in her wheelchair - isolated, invisible, ignored. A deafening silence engulfed her little world, even though a few feet away sat rows of others who, like her, were aged and frail, but who, unlike her, were ignorant or crazy. This rendered them either incapable or unworthy of her communication.

She fingered the frayed edge of the quilt trying to discern the colors through her diminished eyesight. Her hand brushed a white flannel piece and flashes of her youth illuminated her mind. Why, this looks like the wool-flannel dress I wore with new patent leather shoes the day I married Willie Kruse. I still recall the fancy braided trim and white fur collar and cuffs. The contrast of that orange flower on the wide-brimmed black satin hat which crowned my long, black hair, must have presented quite a spectacle! Willie looked unusually dashing himself in his moss-green, shadow plaid suit, his tan silk pongee shirt, brown tie, gray bill cap, and...of all things...orange oxfords.! He was sporting that new overcoat as well.

Bertie's thoughts ended as abruptly as they had begun. She became irritated and yelled for the nurse as tears welled up in her eyes. No one came. Some of her companions offered consolation, but she simply glanced at them with disdain and inaudible whispers of scorn. She pursed her lips and retreated into her self-created gloom.

Bertie's brow furrowed as the memories of that wedding day resumed. Every woman anticipates that happy day when she is to marry, but I was frightened and devoid of excitement or joy. I did not love Willie nor did I know what true love was. If only my parents had not insisted that I marry him! Such a high price to pay for the guarantee of a home! What a disaster! But then, if I hadn't married him, I wouldn't have my blessed Ora Norene - what a beautiful blue-eyed baby she was. As Bertie's eye caught a piece of blue satin, she recalled another wedding day - the day the grown-up Norene married Russ. The spirit of love and happiness that eluded my wedding to Willie, pervaded theirs and has carried them through all these years.

She sighed deeply and drifted toward sleep as her head drooped onto her chest. Her hair, no longer a thick black crown, hung thin and white along her cheeks. As she slept, she dreamed happy dreams of the young Norene, dancing, drawing and coloring.

At dinner time, Bertie was awakened and wheeled to the dining room where she was confronted with an unappetizing assortment of food, whose lack of visual appeal alone squelched her hunger. She had once taken great pride in her own ability to prepare delicious and varied meals, but those days were long gone. Now, because her eye-hand coordination had diminished significantly, a nurse's assistant came to feed her. A few bites seemed more than sufficient, so Bertie shook her head and waved her hand in refusal of another morsel.

Her hips ached from too many hours in the wheelchair and she welcomed the relief when, after dinner, aides assisted her into bed. They laid the old pieced quilt over her. Somehow it comforted her and she felt like a child again, finding solace in a cherished blanket. She recognized her infantile capabilities...her inability to turn herself over or to read a book or even to watch the television news as she had for so many years prior. Though in her 90's, Bertie remained surprised by how quickly this deterioration had descended on her. She retreated into her fading memories, retrieving and briefly meditating on bits and pieces of her life.

A square of pink floral reminded her of a dress her mother once made for her sister, Ruby. I never have understood why she didn't make one of those dresses for me also. I waited my whole life to be shown a fraction of the affection that Mother gave to Ruby.

Suddenly, her gnarled arthritic fingers found a fabric that she need not see to recognize. It was the remnant of a dress she had sewn for herself back in 1932. Her mind was deluged with the memories of the relationship between herself and Vonnie Southerland, which had begun the moment their eyes met. Tears came easily now as she recalled the twenty-six years which had beleaguered her with sorrow and pain. How could I forget that April day which brought our first encounter while each of us was married to another?

She had always blamed Vonnie and even now, her aged mind resisted responsibility. I did not seduce him. Vonnie forced me, then tormented me. After telling the story this way for so many years, the truth no longer presented itself.

Bertie lingered in the fog of confusion, tossed between recollections of delight and love, betrayal and rejection. Was she guilty after all? These thoughts carried her further into a state of loneliness and isolation. Where are all my children? Why am I not surrounded with love and lavished with attention in my latter days? Surely after all I have endured, that's the least I deserve. She abandoned her thoughts and succumbed to the welcome relief of sleep.

At this point, the narrative shifts to Vonnie's voice as another portion of the story is brought to light through his eyes. Being so close to the original story, it's hard for me to tell how it comes across to others or if it resonates with anyone outside the family. It is also difficult to know, if our approach makes sense and works with those who don't have all the "back knowledge" that we do. I know this is a brief excerpt, but if you have any comments, I'd like to hear them.

On Rhetoric XV: Figures of Description

I have not forgotten that one of my earliest posts on rhetoric promised to provide definitions and examples for the most widely used Figures of Description.

In the early stages of composition, students are learning to write primarily by imitation of proven authors. Remember that the exercise of imitation is helpful because students learn, by absorption, the nature of well-framed plots, characters and settings. When we ask them to expand an existing story, by inserting a specific Figure of Description, we allow them to focus on the development of one particular skill rather than expecting them to simultaneously generate an interesting plot, engaging and believable characters, well-formed sentences, and accurate spelling.

These figures are prescribed - and commonly used - ways of bringing a story to life. They require the student to isolate an image in their mind and then bring that same image into their reader's mind. As mentioned previously, this requires astute powers of observation which can be acquired and sharpened through practice.

Here are some of the common Figures with their definitions. I will expand on each later, providing examples from literature.

Each of these definitions begin with the words: A vivid description of...

Anemographia - the wind or air

Astrothesia - the stars or night sky

Chorographia - a nation or group of people

Chronographia - an historical or recurring time

Dendographia - trees, vegetation

Effictio - a person's body, often from head to toe

Geographia - the earth or landscape

Hydrographia - water or bodies of water

Prosopographia - a person's face or expressions

Pragmatographia - an action or event

Topographia - the layout of a room, street, town, etc.

Topothesia - an imaginary place

The definitions for the following figures, do not begin with "the vivid decsription of"

Ecphrasis - a conventional description of a person, place, event, season, etc.

Ethopoiea - the portrayal of a being's character

Prosopopoeia - "To give a face" - to animate the inanimate (same as personification)

These are the primary figures I will deal with in the classroom. I have excluded a few that are commonly named because I either don't understand them, or have not found sufficient examples to elucidate them. I am in the process of inventing names for some other descriptions that I find repeatedly, but are not specified on any list I can find.

Giving Credit Where It's Due

I don't want to be remiss in giving credit to those "teachers" by which I have obtained my information and views regarding classical composition:

Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style - Erasmus (1512)

"Classical Composition" curriculum - Jim Selby (2003)

Composition in the Classical Tradition - Frank D'Angelo (2000, Allyn & Bacon)

Composition & Rhetoric for Higher Schools - Lockwood & Emerson (1902 Athenaeum Press)

Silvae Rhetoricae - an internet site hosted by Brigham Young University

60 Ways to Turn a Phrase - Arthur Quinn (1982)

Of course, these sources are largely derivative from the Ancients (Aphthonius, Aristotle, Cicero, Isocrates, etc.....), as well as from Medievalists (Augustine, Bede, Boethius...). And, I might add, there are a host of other brilliant resources - some which I have studied and some which I have only perused - but those listed above have been most formative for me thus far.

On Rhetoric XIV: The Canons

There are 5 Canons within the classical rhetorical pedagogy: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory and Delivery.

Invention is derivative from the Latin, invenire, to find, and is primarily concerned with finding something to say. It refers to what the author says, rather than how he says it. This phase of writing can present the most difficulty and consume the most time, but is foundational. Obviously, no matter how well you say a thing, if substance is lacking, your eloquence is wasted.

Arrangement is the process of ordering your thoughts, arguments, or appeals in a logical and coherent way. The arrangement of a Classical Oration would follow this pattern:

1) Introduction (exordium) - The writer convinces the audience to listen to what he has to say, which requires an ethical appeal to authority...either the writer's own, or those whom he will use to defend his position. The persuasive appeal to authority is called ethos.

2) Statement of Facts (narratio) - Set it up...tell the story.

3) Division (partitio) - The author reveals the charge, accusation, or problem and lets his audience know what is coming in the rest of the oration.

4) Proof (confirmatio) - Exactly what it sounds like...the setting forth of what is true and why...arguing for your view.

5) Refutation (refutatio) - Again, the name reveals all...arguing against opposing views.

#'s 2-5 constitute the "Body" of the paper and use persuasive appeals to reason, called logos.

6) Conclusion (peroratio/epilogos) - The author uses an emotional appeal, pathos, to get his audience to "come over to his side."

Style ,as you might guess, refers to how the thing is said..."the artful expression of ideas." This is the primary aspect commonly associated with rhetoric, but it is only one of several considerations...but one not to be neglected. Refining stylistic techniques assumes that form is as essential as content in communication. Usually three areas are considered when stylizing an oration.

1) The Virtues of Style - Lists vary from 3-7 "encompassing concerns." The 3, kairos, audience and decorum, cover the concerns nicely. Kairos: Where and when will the oration be given? Audience: Who will be listening and to what end? (judicial, legislative or ceremonial) Decorum: What is appropriate to say and how can it best be said? In other words, the writing is tailored for its listeners.

2) The Levels of Style - In the Roman tradition, one of three styles was followed depending on the purpose of the speech. These "branches of oratory" are: 1) Judicial: deals with the justice or injustice of a past act. 2) Legislative: attempts to persuade or dissuade as worthy or unworthy for the future. 3) Ceremonial: praises or blames a virtue or vice in the present.

3) The Quality of Style - The quality of an oration consists in its ornamentation...the word choices, tropes, figures of speech or figures of description employed to communicate the ideas. Soon, I will spend a number of posts defining and providing examples for several of these figures of description from quality literature.

Memory refers to the obvious aspect of becoming so thoroughly familiar with your writing (for oration), that you can easily recall it. However, it also carries the idea of being widely learned so that you can call to mind - from memory - appropriate analogies, examples, details, correlations, etc. Here the orator also considers what will cement his ideas in the mind of his audience. (note the past, present, future nature of these aspects of memory...)

Delivery, effective delivery anyway, requires a bit of acting...vocal inflection, facial expressions, bodily gestures all become important in maximizing effect. The presence of this in the 5 Canons reminds us of the oral nature of rhetoric...the written word is often prepared for public hearing. It has been said that, "Winston Churchill could never have stirred the British public as he did were it not for the grave, serious, and controlled tone of voice that he employed in his radio speeches. His faith in the allied powers rang out in stentorian cadences that by their very vibrations instilled belief in the masses. His message was often cliche, but his delivery was never anything but spell-binding. Had he had a feeble voice, perhaps Germany would have fared better."

On Rhetoric XIII: The Final Four

The final four stages are advanced applications and variations of earlier stages, and since I have neither taught, nor yet worked extensively through them, I will simply provide brief definitions and explanations.

Impersonation: Compose a speech or dialogue from the 1st person perspective of an historical or literary figure; an "in-character" composition, if you will.

Description: Describe an object, event or person in such a way as to set it clearly before the reader's eye; the mastery of Tropes, Figures of Speech and Figures of Description.

Thesis: Advanced argumentation for or against a speculative or theoretical idea, such as "Should a person marry?" (a high-level refutation/confirmation)

Defend/Attack a Law: a declamation setting forth the pros and cons of a given law using the Heads of Purpose (right, just, decent, probable, possible, proper,etc...)

Once a student has mastered these 14 Progymnasmata, he should be ready and competent to tackle advanced rhetorical applications within the Canons of Rhetoric...but I'll save those for another day!

On Rhetoric XII: Examples of Stages 8-10

For a shining example of encomium, see President Bush's address at Ronald Reagan's funeral. You'll see how it follows this pattern quite effectively.

The prima facie example for Comparison would be Plutarch's Lives, where he composes both double Encomiums as well as Encomium/Invective comparisons.

Resources for student practice:

Encomium: Choose from many Biblical/historical/literary figures (Noah, Abraham, Moses, Rahab...Augustine, Luther, Wilberforce, Washington...The Ant, Frodo, Beowulf, etc....)

Invective: Choose from Biblical/historical/literary figures (Cain, Saul, Judas,...Nero, Hitler, Hussein...Javert, The Fox, Achilles, etc...)

Comparison: Proverbs - the Wise Man and the Foolish Man

The Good Samaritan - and the neglectful religious leaders

The Little Red Hen - and the lazy animals

Cinderella - and her stepsisters

Robert E. Lee & Stonewall Jackson
King David & King Ahab

You get the idea! A host of material exists and is easily accessible for these 3 stages.

On Rhetoric XI: Encomium & Invective

The previous stage, Commonplace, provides foundational training for these next two stages:

Encomium & Invective: AKA: Blaming and Praising; chiefly, the author finds fault with or commends a particular person; however, these can be used in regard to abstract ideas (innocence, wisdom), or times (a season, or an era), places, animals, etc.

Mode: Exposition, Description

Means: Use all skills previously mastered and follow this pattern:

Prologue - composed of 4 sentences:

1st Sentence - utilize 2 "Heads of purpose": Justice, legality, possibility, decency, etc... [i.e. it is right (just) to honor those who have.....and to recall the benefits (decency) they bestowed....]

2nd Sentence - Thesis expressing purpose or intent of essay 
3rd Sentence - Heighten the praise by pointing out that this person: is the only one is the first one is almost the only one has done it better than all others has done it at an unexpected time, etc.

4th Sentence - states or reiterates the good attributed to the person

Birth, Source, Origin - describe a person's stock 
People/Nation 
Country/Homeland 
Ancestors/Heritage Parents

Upbringing - describe a person's background 
Education
Training
Instruction 
Pursuits

Achievments - describe the person's deeds which proceed from:

Excellency of mind (prudence, bravery, wisdom)

Excellency of body (beauty, speed, vigor)

Excellency of fortune (position, power, wealth, friends)

Comparison - make a favorable 3-sentence comparison to escalate your praise

1st Sentence - Ask a question (Can so-and-so's accomplishments compare...?)

2nd Sentence - Highlight the difference (So-and-so did it because....but he did it for...)

3rd Sentence - Draw an analogy (In the same way "this" excels "that", so does so-and-so's action exceed....)

Epilogue - Briefly exhort your audience to emulate this person

The descriptions above all apply to Encomium. Simply reverse the positives to negatives to compose an Invective.

Also, the specific # of sentences prescribed for the Prologue and Comparison are for the benefit and discipline of students learning the process...an experienced writer need not follow such rigid formulas. The same basic ideas should be included, but it may take 2 sentences or it may take 8.

The 10th Stage is:

Comparison: A full-fledged comparison made through a double Encomium or a combination Encomium/Invective. Follow the same procedures outlined above for both persons, highlighting the similarities (double encomium) or the differences (encomium/invective).  Plutarch's Lives provides an excellent example of Comparison.

On Rhetoric X: Commonplace

In the interest of finishing what I began long ago...


The next and 7th stage in the Progym system is:

Commonplace: in which the writer aims to highlight or amplify the inherent evils of a common vice, such as theft, adultery, tyranny... actions that are commonly viewed as evil, regardless of the perpetrator; it can also be used to amplify the inherent good of a particular virtue, such as selflessness, charity, or patience. Commonplace is invoked to persuade for/against an ACTION or CLASS of persons (i.e. murder/murderers, lying/liars, drunkenness/drunkards, etc.), not a particular person or his particular crime/sin.

Mode: Narrative, Exposition, Argumentation

Means: All used previously, plus:

Prologue - identifies the commonplace and calls for punishment (i.e. anyone who murders a child should receive the harshest penalty)

Amplifying Topics/Heads:

Contrast - this wrongful act with a noble one

Comparison - a wrongful act with this greater wrong

Intent - demonstrate that the act was willful; establish motive

Defamation - reproach the past life of the accused

Rejection of Pity - clarify the absurdity of showing pity for this act

Heads of Purpose - argue from 2-3 of these heads:

Legality

Justice

Expediency

Possibility

Decency

Epilogue - Illuminate the negative consequences of failure to act or the positive consequences of inflicting punishment.

This exercise requires the students to "isolate an idea" in their minds, and it demands they think clearly and judicially.

On Rhetoric IX: More on Chreia & Maxim

The previous post explained the overarching purpose of this Chreia and Maxim stages, but here are some representative wise sayings, proverbs, maxims or sententia that you can use with your students:

"A little learning is a dangerous thing." (Alexander Pope)

"Don't put all your eggs in one basket."

"Spare the rod; spoil the child."

"Don't air your dirty laundry."

"The root of education is bitter, its fruit sweet." (Isocrates)

"To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace." (George Washington)

"Whatever makes men good Christians, makes them good citizens." (Daniel Webster)

"Do your duty in all things; you cannot do more; you should never wish to do less." (Robert E. Lee)

"Each man is like those in whose company he delights."

"A wise son heeds his father's instruction, but a mocker does not listen to rebuke." (Proverbs 13:1)

"He who covers an offense promotes love, but whoever repeats the matter separates close friends." (Proverbs 17:9)

"No race can prosper till it learns there is as much dignity in tilling a field as in writing a poem." (Booker T. Washington)

Choose sayings that fit with a topic under discussion in Literature, History, Science or Bible class, thereby integrating writing across the curriculum and establishing the relevance of the process in your students' minds. They are usually more eager to participate in a laborious task, if they either enjoy it, or believe it to be useful.

BTW, sometimes students must be required to complete work which they neither enjoy nor understand its relevance. Immaturity may prevent them from ascertaining the benefits of a particular skill or habit, and at other times their stubborn refusal to accept the wisdom of elders comes into play. Either way, as teachers, we should attempt to bring as much joy and relevance to the process as possible, and ensure that our requirements are purposeful and productive.

On Rhetoric VIII: Progym Stages 3-6

So, Fable and Narrative comprise the first two stages of the Progymnasmata. The next four can be grouped by twos, since they are variations of one another. The first two are:

Chreia & Maxim: in which the writer aims to amplify, uncover, and support truth; isolate an idea

Mode: Exposition

Means: All mentioned in previous stages (Figures of Description, Recognition, Reversal, Paraphrasing, Outlining, Retelling by Condensing, Expanding, Altering Sequence or Changing Viewpoint, Identifying the 6 Essential Elements: Agent, Action, Time, Place, Manner, Cause)

In the two previous stages, students are given an entire story to rewrite using the means mentioned above; however, with Chreia & Maxim, the student is only given a proverb, or wise saying and must utilize the skills mastered in Fable & Narrative to explain why this particular saying is worthy of our consideration. Whereas before, it was important to "isolate an image" in the mind and communicate it clearly, students are now asked to "isolate an idea" and communicate and support it effectively. They are asked to do so by following a pattern of paragraphs (or "heads") which comprise essential elements of advanced rhetoric and which are designed to establish as second nature, certain habits of thinking.

8 Heads:

Encomium - praise the sayer, gain your audience; though you do not need their assent at this point, you DO need their attention

Paraphrase - restate the original saying in different words or phrasing

Cause - narrate the situation or explain facts that underlie the truth of the saying

Converse - develop a contrast based on the "Cause" paragraph; "If this is not true, then...." or "If the opposite happens, then...."

Comparison - create an analogy; an analogy discovers similarities in dissimilar objects or events (i.e. the hard labor of education and the hard labor of farming - dissimilar activities - both produce sweet fruit - similar effects)

Example - provide a particular demonstration of the truth of the saying; examples should be immediately and universally recognizable for the intended audience (well-known persons or events)

Testimony - back up your position by calling on the testimony of "ancients" - quoting well-known sources who are recognized as authoritative lends credence to your position

Epilogue - admonishes the audience to believe and requires their assent

Teaches: This stage teaches how to support a given idea

The following two stages are:

Refutation & Confirmation: in which the writer aims to overturn or secure a given fact

Mode: Argument

Means: All of the above, plus...

Blame or Praise the "teller" of the story

Summarize story

Praise or Discredit the source

Attack/Confirm the narrative, act, fact or detail as:

Obscure / Manifest

Implausible / Probable

Impossible / Possible

Illogical / Logical

Improper / Fitting

Unprofitable / Profitable

Teaches: How to attack or defend a given idea

In these stages, students are asked to argue both sides of the same mythological, historical, or legal facts in a given narrative (i.e. George Washington and the cherry tree incident); they both refute and confirm, as outlined above, the likelihood that this incident occurred in the way we are told it occurred. This exercise requires students to evaluate a situation/idea from more than one perspective. This prepares them to anticipate and answer opposing viewpoints.

Rhetoric VII: ProgymnasmataTheory - Stages 1-2

Let me back up before I expound on particular Figures of Description and explain a bit more about "Classical Composition" theory and specifically the Progymnasmata.

Problem: Writers trained under modern composition theory produce an abundance of faulty grammar and logical fallacies, while their style is characterized by an absence of elegance. We often frustrate our students by asking them to perform tasks for which they have not been adequately prepared, or which cut against their bent for learning at a particular stage.

Premise: Good composition must be driven by both the intellect and the imagination. Plausible, well-organized information/plot/argument, coupled with a winsome presentation, draw your audience in and increase the likelihood that you will actually be heard.

Purpose: To learn to engage the audience's imagination through vivid, effective images created through words. To teach students to isolate an idea/image in their minds and describe it with words. To develop logical thinking and rhetorical structures in the mind.

Pedagogy: From about the 3rd-4th grade through the 9th or 10th grades, teachers strive to lay the foundation for logical and rhetorical structures which will be necessary for the final 2-3 years of Aristotle's Rhetoric.

Progymnasmata Stages 1 and 2:

Fable: imitate and amplify

Mode: paraphrasing

Means: 
Figures of Description - isolate and describe an image

Recognition - identify points of discovery or delight in the story

Reversal - when the proud are humbled or the low are exalted

Paraphrasing - choosing word and phrase synonyms; sentence variety

Outline - deconstruct story

Retell - reconstruct story from outline

Teaches: Many ways to say the same thing.

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Narrative: imitate, uncover truth, amplify, abbreviate

Mode: paraphrasing

Means: Same as Fable, plus...

Identify 6 Essential elements (AKA: 6 Historical questions)

Agent - who?

Action - what?

Time - when?

Place - where?

Manner - how?

Cause - why?

Outline: deconstruct story

Retell: reconstruct from outline

Condense - eliminate all unnecessary data

Expand - add elements to story using Figures of Description

Alter Sequence - tell backwards or from the middle

Change Viewpoint - tell from a character's point of view, etc.

Teaches: Many ways to tell the same story.

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So there you have a summary of the first 2 of 14 stages...I just realized I have been awake for 22 hours. I think I'll retire for a couple and finish this later!

Rhetoric VI: Progymnasmata

After ensuring our children are acquiring "Copia" through literature, intelligent conversation, and systematic vocabulary study, we can then focus on the Progymnasmata, or the "before exercises." While copia is designed to teach our children many ways to say the same thing, the first two Progym stages (Fable and Narrative) are designed to provide them with tools of description. Vivid descriptions create an image in the mind of the reader and every successful literary author has learned to do this well.

Remember that the best writing engages both the intellect and the imagination. Though we easily recognize the importance of the imagination in narrative, we often forget its significance in argumentation. The more effectively you create images in your audience's mind, the more likely they are to remember and be persuaded by your reasoning. However, the place to begin learning to communicate vivid images is with narratives...later on, these skills of description will transfer to the more advanced stages of rhetoric, such as refuting or confirming arguments, etc.

How do we train young students in Progymnasmata? First of all, we teach them names and definitions of particular "Figures of Description." Naming and defining, though often ridiculed in modern educational theory, is the most fundamental form of knowledge - think about toddlers learning to talk...they don't begin by forming and verbalizing a rational thought, but by naming things. This constitutes the primary step of "taking dominion" over a thing. "What is it?" and "What is it called?" not only precede, but are essential for securing abstract understanding of the thing named.

Secondly, we identify superior examples of these Figures of Description in real literature, so students recognize how the masters use words to create pictures. During this process, both you and your students may begin to realize that astute powers of observation are necessary to create vivid descriptions and how very dull many of our senses have become. The awakening of our senses requires discipline...the formation of new habits which can be practiced in everyday situations. In order to vividly describe facial expressions, one must actually pay attention to others' features and responses. To communicate personality, one must attend to habits of dress, gait, gesture, posture, speech, etc. Observation is a vital prerequisite to creating vivid descriptions.

Traditionally, when asked to describe an object, place or event, students tend to resort to adjectives...afterall, they ARE "describing" words. C.S. Lewis writes, in one of his Letters to Children: "In writing - Don't use adjectives which merely tell us how you want us to feel about the thing you are describing. I mean, instead of telling us a thing was 'terrible,' describe it so that we'll be terrified. Don't say, 'it was delightful,' make us say 'delightful' when we've read the description. You see, all those words (horrifying, wonderful, hideous, exquisite) are only like saying to your readers, 'Please, will you do my job for me?'" Teaching and modeling the various Figures of Description will lead students away from excessive use of adjectives, while providing tools for "showing" rather than "telling."

More next time on actual Figures of Description and how to practice them...

On Rhetoric V: Vocabulary Acquisition

In order to produce an abundance of expressions - and this may seem overly obvious - students must be engaged in a systematic vocabulary study, which should include, above all things, immersion in Greek and Latin roots, because they provide access to thousands of English derivatives.

This vocab study must also include practice in what I call "word discrimination." Which is the best word to communicate your exact meaning: "cool" "composed" "collected" "unruffled" "imperturbable" or "nonchalant"?

In this sentence: "The ____________ went across the road." Fill in the blank with snake, bear, chicken, dog, cat, robin, pony, dolphin or cheetah and then replace the word "went" with a stronger, more descriptive verb (slither, lumber, waddle, flutter, prance, sped, etc.) To choose wisely, in either case, requires familiarity with the idea of denotation and connotation, as well as the nuances of particular words. While this ability can increase over time through exposure to good literature and intelligent conversation, it will never be as finely tuned without systematic word study.

Should students be allowed to use a Thesaurus for this type of exercise? Sometimes. Often, one of two things happen: the child foregoes the attempt to actually THINK and draw from his own resources; after all, why exert mental effort if someone else can do it for me? OR, from inexperience, he chooses a word listed in the thesaurus without understanding its meaning or connotation and it doesn't fit the context! So, here's my advice: practice using the thesaurus with your students, explaining the implications of each word under a particular heading, and allow them LIMITED independent use (for example, if they have to re-word 5 sentences, let them use it for 1 of them). Students who are natural "wordsmiths" will be most adept at using this tool, because they instinctively understand differences and they often acquire new vocabulary through its use.

In summary, help your children and students achieve "copia" through:

Reading Good Literature

Listening to Good Literature (Jim Weiss produces high-caliber recordings of Myths, Fairy Tales, Classic stories, G.A. Henty, Shakespeare, etc...these are excellent, intelligent sources of vocab acquisition!)

Systematic Vocabulary Study